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Home > Kerala Temples > Introduction to Kerala Temples > Scriptures ScripturesThe earlier references on Hinduism are found in the Vedas, which are the basis of the cultural heritage of India. The Vedas are books of knowledge and known as Sruthi, meaning ‘that which is heard’, because they contain truths which were not fabricated but were ‘heard’ or discovered by great Rshis. Very little is known about these great seers who composed them. They were mostly men but included some women also. According to tradition, Krishna Dwaipaayana or Veda Vyaasa did commendable work by compiling them into four parts viz Rg Veda, Yajur Veda, Saama Veda and Atharva Veda each one dealing with specified topic. Rg veda (prior to 1500 B.C) is the Veda of hymns while Yajur Veda consists of Rg hymns and prose formula neatly arranged for use in the performance of sacrifices. The Saama Veda also covers selected hymns from Rg Veda arranged as chants with reference to Soma sacrifice. The Atharva Veda gives combination of Vedic religion and philosophy with popular cults and practices. The contents of each Veda fall into four sections Samhitha (manthras), Braahmana, Aaranyaka and Upanishad. Manthras (holy hymns) are poetic expression of the revealed Truth while the Braahmanas lay down the procedure for the performance of sacrificial rites. The Aaranyakas (forest boks) deal with the philosophic interpretations of the rituals and also set various methods of meditation. The Upanishads or Vedaantha or the concluding portion of Vedas are theological treatises. The term Upanishad (upa-ni-sad) means the knowledge received by the student ‘sitting close to ‘ the teacher (i.e. the knowledge which removes, shatters or destroys avidya). These divisions are meant for four orders of life (aasramam), i.e. Samhitha has to be studied by brahmachaarins; the rituals and rites specified in Braahmanas have to be followed by the grhastha (householder); the modes of meditation given in Aaranyaka have to be practived by those at vaanaprastha (ascetic); and the jnaanamaargga enunciated in the Upanishads to be realized by the sannyaasi (the hermit). Although any one of these four orders is open to a student he could also follow two or more orders which is a unique feature of the Indian Society. The scriptures of all religions contain myths, legends and cosmological theories. In Hinduism these scriptures can be classified into two-Sruthi, which discovers the essential spiritual truths and realization in one’s own life while Smrthi covers the social rules and regulations. Smrthi also belongs to the sacred books of all the historical religions, which derive their origin and authority from a personal founder. Thus, among India’s sacred books, the Bhagavad Geetha, the Mahabhaaratha, the Raamaayana and all the Puraanas are classed as Smrthis besides Manu Smrthi, Yaajinavalkya Smrthi, and similar other books of Hindu law. Expecting the Upanishads, all other scriptues of religions, in India and outside, contain a mixture of the contents and Sruthi and Smrthi in varying proportions. That is why the Upanishads are treated as the one Sruthi par excellence. Of late, as a result of the great contributions of Sankaracharya (788-820 AD), Ramanujacharya (1017-1137), Madhvacharya (1199-1278), Nimbrkaracharya, Vallabhacharya (1479-1531), Ramananda (1400-1470), a host of others like Chaitanya Maha Prabhu (1486-1533), Sree Ramakrishna (1836-1886). Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950), Sree Aurobindo (1871-1950) and the like and also owing to the indefatigable efforts of the western Schopenhauer (1788-1860), the Vedaantha is taken to the door steps of the ordinary householder. It is believed that there are 1180 Upanishads, 21 based on Rg Veda, 109 on Yajur Veda, 1000 on Saama Veda and 50 on Atharva Veda. Of these Mukthopanishad, however gives the number of Upanishads as 108. Adi Sankara wrote commentaries on ten important Upanishads viz. Isaa, kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Maandookya, Thaithireeya, Aithareya, Chhaandogya and Brhadaaranyaka. It is also believed that the commentary of Svethaasvathara Upanishad has also been written by him. In the commentary on Brahma soothra he also refers to four more viz Kaustheeki, Jaabaala, Mahaanaarayana and Paingala but no commentaries are given. The eleven principal Upanishads* mentioned above cover various aspects on the search of the ultimate truth. Each one has a Saanthi paatham and introductory sloka(s), in addition to the text. From time immemorial the Vedas gave an impetus to find out Truth and this led to the adoption of various modes of praising, worshipping and feeling the presence of God,the ultimate Truth. The principal exponents of Vedaantha philosophy were Adi Sankaracharya (788-820 A.D), Ramanujacharya (1017-1137 A.D) and Madhvacharya (1238-1317 A.D) Adi Sankara whose vedaanthic school, styles itself as advaitha, means that there is only one reality and that the individual self or jeeva is identical with it. Further he described the universe of multiplicity as one of phenomenal appearance known as maaya. Ramanujacharya, the philosopher of Visishta advaitha, unequivocally states that he who knows Brahman (supreme reality) attains the highest. His moral is based on metaphysical and its significance lies in spiritual aspirations and attainment. The Visishta advaitha thus recognizes both bheda and aaprathik siddhi and combines both in a metaphysical unity. On the other hand Madhvacharya, the exponent of Dvaitha School, upholds and asserts the basic difference between Brahman (the supreme reality) and the individual souls. Dvaitha thus upholds the reality of external world. Whatever may be the approach of these different schools, all aimed at understanding of God, which is the ultimate Truth. These sects mainly differ in their philosophy but the difference in rituals is slight. * 1. Isaa Upanishad:Eighteen manthras (verses). Discusses the spiritual unity and solidarity of all existence. 2. Kena Upanishad: Four khandas (chapters) divided into 35 manthras (verses) tell that there Is higher form of knowledge in which knowledge and experience are one and the presence of the infinite and absolute as pure self. 3. Katha Upanishad: Six vallies (chapters) consisting of 119 manthras (verses) contain a more unified exposition of vedaantha than any other single Upanishad: It is presented as dialogue between Yama and his student Nachiketha; 4. Prasna Upanishad: Six prasnas (chapters) comprising of 67 manthras (verses) – sage Pippalada answers to the questions asked by a group of six students on various aspects of Vedantha; 5. Mundaka Upanishad: Three mundakas (chapters) with sex khandas (sections) having 65 manthras (verses) classify all knowledge into para (higher) and apara (lower); 6. Maandookya Upanishad; Twelve manthras. Give the whole experience through a study of three stages of wakening, dream and dreamless sleep and reveals the athman the true self of man; 7. Thaitthireeya Upanishad; Three vallies (chapters) with 21 anuvaakas (verses) Give a scientific definition of Brahman and proclaims that the knower of Brahman attains the supreme; 8. Aitheraya Upanishad: Six Chapters with six khandas (sections) and 34 verses. Explains the spiritual character through a discussion of the nature of the self of man and proclaims Brahman as pure consciousness; 9. Chhaandogya Upanishad: Eight chapters and 154 khandoms. Gives teacher-student dialogues. The teachers like Aruni, Sanathkumara and Prajaapathi and students like Sathyakama, Svethakethu and Naarada participate. They elaborate the knowledge of innate divinity of man as a remedy for the deeper ills of life, limitations of materialism as philosophy of life and the ends flow from it. 10. Brhadaaranyaka Upanishad: Six chapters and 47 Braahmanas. Two men (Janaka and Yajnavalkya) and two women (Maitreyi and Gargi) through dialogues expound the divinity of man and the spiritual solidarity of the whole universe in Brahman, and 11. Svethaasvathara Upanishad: Six Chapters comprising of 113 manthras (verses). This is a later Upanishad and explains the steps on meditation. The sabda thaaravali, the Malayalam dictionary, gives the period of composing of Upanishads as 2001 to 2201 of Kali Yuga (which correspond to 1102 to 882 B.C)
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